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Ancient Salzburg: Prehistory, Celts, & the Kingdom of Noricum

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From 40,000 BC to the Roman Conquest (15 BC)

Bronze sword found near the city of Salzburg. Dated from 2200-800 BC. From the Keltenmuseum in Hallein, Austria.

By Nick Richwagen

The Austrian city of Salzburg is an international tourist destination. The city is best known known for being the birthplace of Mozart, as well as its Baroque architecture (17th-18th c.) and medieval history. Today, the city is home to 150,000 people and is the capital of Salzburg State (Land Salzburg), which encompasses almost 560,000 Austrians. Although better known for more recent history, Salzburg and the surrounding region have an ancient legacy reaching back into the stone age (with human habitation as early as 40,000 years ago). The town itself has Celtic and Roman foundations, and in the Middle Ages the town was an economic powerhouse and center of industry. The name Salzburg (“Salt castle” in German) comes from the rich salt reserves responsible for the region’s wealth in prehistory, medieval, and modern times.

It is worth considering the earliest people who lived in this area (including the Eastern Alpine region), and how they developed and thrived in a challenging environment. This article will look at Salzburg’s first inhabitants from prehistory into the Celtic period. In particular, the history and archaeology of the Celtic Kingdom of Noricum is explored in detail, as this polity came to control most of the Eastern Alps as well as the Salzach River Valley.

View of Salzburg looking east (2018). Most of the historic old town is south of the river Salzach (right side). This photo was taken from Mönchsberg, the principal steep hill overlooking the city, named after the Benedictine monks which have resided there since 696 AD. The hill on the other side (north bank) is Kapuzinerberg, named for Capuchin monks since the 1600s. Kapuzinerberg has been inhabited since at least 1000 BC.

Article Outline

  1. Salzburg Prehistory
    • Upper Paleolithic (Late Stone Age) 50,000-12,000 years ago
      • First settlement (40,000 BC) by early modern humans (Cro-Magnons)
      • Aurignacian culture
      • End of the last ice age (12,000 BC)
      • Development of agriculture (4,000 BC) and villages
    • Bronze Age in Central Europe (2,300 BC – 800 BC)
  2. The Hallstatt Culture (1,200-475 BC)
    • Late Hallstatt (C/D periods, 800-475)
      • Discovery of Iron (Iron Age) c. 800
  3. La Tène Culture and Celtic Salzburg (450-16 BC)
    • Emergence of the Celts
    • Invasion/spread throughout Europe
    • Celtic culture/society
    • Celtic fortified settlements (oppida) in Salzburg and Eastern Alps
  4. The Veneti
  5. The Kingdom of Noricum (183-16 BC)
    • Early contact with Rome
    • The Cimbrian War
    • Noricum and the Late Roman Republic
    • Salzburg and Noricum
    • Annexation by Rome

I. Salzburg Prehistory

Salzburg State, the region surrounding the city, has been settled by humans for tens of thousands of years. A cave in the region has human remains dating back to 40,000 BC, a time when the Salzach river valley was dominated by glaciers. It was at this time European early modern humans (Cro-Magnons)[1] were displacing Neanderthals in central Europe. Members of the Aurignacian archaeological culture, these stone-age people made tools out of bones and antlers. It is impossible to know what compelled people to move into an area dominated by towering glaciers and mountains, but the earliest humans were hunters who may have been following herds of reindeer through the narrow mountain passes.

Farming would not begin in the region for another 36 centuries. New people came to Austria c. 10,000 BC, and started farming in small settlements around 4,000 BC. Using stone and wooden tools, these first farmers cleared forests and plowed their land. Other evidence suggests grain cultivation and land clearance in the Alpine foothills as early as the 5,000s BC. A single family during this Neolithic period (starting c. 4,500 BC in Austria) required 3 hectares of farmland to survive. Because of the primitive tools available, farming was excruciatingly difficult. The wheel was only introduced in the 2000s BC, at the start of the Bronze Age (c. 2,300 BC).

A more complete image of the bronze sword found near the city of Salzburg. Dated from 2200-800 BC. Swords were sometimes thrown into swamps as sacrifical offerings, a ritual that continued into Celtic times. From the Keltenmuseum. Although I have provided images taken at this museum, I am in no way affiliated with this institution.

After a period in which copper metallurgy was dominant, the Bronze Age allowed for more sophisticated social stratification, the development of a primitive currency (rib ingots), and mining. The site at Mitterberg became the center of Bronze Age Metallurgy in central Europe, and here copper mining peaked in the 1000s BC. Copper was combined with tin to make bronze. Because tin was a much more scarce resource, it had to be imported from the Ore Mountains, today on the border between Germany and the Czech Republic.

Rib ingots were an early form of currency in Bronze-Age central Europe. Dated from 2200-1500 BC, found in Kuchl. From the Keltenmuseum.

During this period, the rich salt deposits in Salzburg state were discovered, probably by hunters who observed reindeer making use of salt-licks. Created by the tectonic movements that forged the Alps in the Jurassic period, these salt veins stretched from the Tyrol region all the way to modern Vienna. Regular salt mining and extraction began at Dürnberg by the late Bronze Age (c. 500 BC). The salt and bronze mines, controlled by powerful local princes and chieftains, became important centers of production and manufacture for the whole of Europe. The region served as a crossroads for trade, with Baltic amber and Italian and Greek vessels being traded for salt, bronze, and copper.

By the end of the Bronze Age, the region around modern Salzburg was a continental trade hub.

II. The Hallstatt Culture

Discovered human remains provide insight into life during this period. The middle Bronze Age (1500-1200 BC) corresponds with the Tumulus culture, during which bodies were covered in mounds. During the late Bronze Age (1200-800 BC), the Urnfield culture predominated, and bodies were cremated and buried in urns. Bronze swords were thrown in swamps, and sacrifices made as tributes to unknown gods.

The Late Bronze Age saw the emergence of the Hallstatt culture (the period 1200-800 BC corresponding to the Hallstat A/B phase). This culture was first identified at the town of Hallstatt in Austria, directly 20 miles southeast of Salzburg, and emerged out of the Urnfield. The famous Iron Age Celts that would come to dominate Europe are believed to have originated out of the Hallstatt culture, who are traditionally regarded as Proto-Celts (or even fully Celtic in the later Hallstatt phases, C/D)[2].

Hallstatt jewelry and dagger. From the Keltenmuseum.

Originating in the Salzkammergut, the region including Salzburg and Hallstatt, the Hallstatt culture spread to multiple independent villages across central Europe. Society was controlled by a wealthy elite who regulated access to raw materials and trade. The upper class was buried in elaborate grave mounds, often with chariots (horse wagons) that were a symbol of their authority. Weapons and jewelry featured abstract geometric designs, though luxury goods continued to be imported from the Greek Mediterranean. It is possible that a shared Proto-Celtic language developed among these early Hallstatt people.

In the Salzburg region, chiefs continued to maintain their power by controlling salt mines, continuing a pattern from the pre-Hallstat era. The Hallstatt type site, located in the namesake town south of Salzburg, has yielded over 1,300 graves buried between 1200 and 500 BC, and surrounding ancient mines have preserved textiles, tools, and even food remains from this period. This site was likely the dominant settlement among the western Hallstatt culture, though magnificent burial mounds for individual chieftains have been discovered elsewhere.

The discovery of iron in the 8th century revolutionized Hallstatt society. During the Hallstatt C Period (800-600 BC, the early Iron Age) elaborate hilltop settlements[3] were created as a more advanced material culture developed. As society moved into the last phase of Hallstatt (Hallstatt D, 600-475 BC), these hilltop fortifications become complex centers of trade and manufacturing. By the classical period, these fortified hill settlements were important economic centers to Celtic society, at least in Britain. However, there was little direct continuity between Hallstatt hill sites and later Celtic ones.

In the 7th century, small Hallstatt villages were formed in the hills around modern Salzburg, and also likely occupied Rainberg hill (Stadtberge). Evidence suggests that this site had been occupied long before the Hallstatt, as early as the Neolithic (4500 BC).

III. La Tène Culture and Celtic Salzburg

In a brief 50-year period, Hallstatt society suffered a period of disruption (500-450 BC), and Hallstatt hillforts were abandoned all over Western Europe. Archaeologists are unsure if this event was caused by invaders or internal strife, but a new material culture emerged- the La Tène. Named after a type site found in Switzerland, the La Tène culture lasted from 450 BC to the start of the first century. The La Tène culture can essentially be regarded as the material culture of the Celts. For almost 500 years, the La Tène was the dominant iron-age material culture in Western Europe. Emerging in the northwest fringe of the Hallstatt, between the valleys of the Marne and Moselle rivers (eastern France, SW Germany), La Tène culture would spread (450-200 BC) with the Celts across the European continent from Spain to Anatolia.

Celts (called Gauls by the Romans)[4] entered the written record as they invaded the Classical Mediterranean world.  As early as the 5th century BC, Celts had entered the Po Valley and were thus established in Northern Italy. In 387, Gauls sacked the city of Rome, striking a serious blow to the early Roman Republic. In 279 Celtic tribes poured into the Balkans, Macedonia and Greece, going so far as to sack the Temple of Apollo at Delphi. Greek authors commented on the ferocity of their opponents and the vicious blows struck by Celtic longswords, which forced Greek hoplites to resort to skirmishing tactics.

The Celts were never unified politically, but operated as tribes and shifting tribal coalitions. Usually governed by kings, though often by tribal oligarchies, Celtic societies were dominated by a warrior aristocracy. In mainland Europe, some Celts lived in fortified cities (called oppida). In the La Tène period, the Celts had complex trade relationships with Mediterranean cultures, namely the Romans and the Greeks. Mediterranean art strongly influenced the development of native Celtic metalwork.

Fibulae (brooch for fastening clothes) discovered at Durrnberg, one of the most important Iron-Age sites. Also from the Keltenmuseum.

By 350, the La Tene Celts were firmly established in the northern part of Salzburg state, as well as Upper and Lower Austria. Many Celtic archaeological remains have been concentrated in Salzburg and the city of Durrnberg in the middle of the Salzach valley. A number of oppida have been identified in modern Salzburg State and Upper Austria, including at Saalfeldern-Biberg (upper Salzach valley), Karlstein and Durrnberg (Hallein) as centers of salt mining. The Duurnberg site in particular has yielded many artifacts. Within modern Salzburg’s city limits, Rainberg hill was an oppidum which evolved into a nucleus of proto-Salzburg.

Early Iron-Age Sites in the Eastern Alps. This image was adapted from sites referenced in Noricum (1974) by Hungarian archaeologist Géza Alföldy.

IV. The Veneti

At first, the Celts were not the only people in the early Iron Age (800-600 BC) Alpine regions. The Veneti and Illyrians[5] were non-Celtic peoples who were present in the Eastern Alpine region during this time. The Veneti were an Italic culture that flourished independently of the Celts only briefly, and were subsumed in waves of Celtic migration at the end of the Hallstatt. The extent to which the Veneti persisted or were absorbed completely by the Celts as a people cannot be entirely answered, but there is firm evidence for their origin as a non-Celtic culture. The Veneti chiefly flourished in northeastern Italy, but at least two surviving inscriptions of the Venetic language survive that attest to their presence in the Eastern Alps: (1) personal names carved on a crag near the city of Würmlach (80 miles south of Salzburg), and (2) a set of bronze-fittings in wooden box in the nearby hamlet of Gurina/Dellach. The Veneti here were established in the upper Gail valley, today in the Austrian state of Carinthia (Kärnten).

V. The Kingdom of Noricum

Before 200 BC, a group of Celts and the remnants of the Veneti/Illyrians coalesced as two tribal groups- the Taurisci and the Norici.[6] These two tribes dominated the Eastern Alps and the area south of the Danube. Eventually, the groups merged, becoming a single confederation, though they retained separate identifies into the first century AD. At times, ancient authors may have referred to both simply as Norici.

While the Norici did not live directly in modern Salzburg, the Celts who did (the Ambisontes) pledged their allegiance and eventually became part of the Norican Kingdom. Because relatively little is known about the Ambisontes (see below), the history of pre-Roman Salzburg is best understood through the history of the Kingdom of Noricum.

V-1. Early Contact with Rome

Sometime in the 3rd century BC, the Norici made contact with the Romans, likely when the Roman Republic was conquering Celts living in the Po Valley.

Livy, the greatest Roman historian, wrote about a bizarre incident that set the tone for the future relationship between these peoples (Book 39 of Ad Urbe Condita). In the year 186 BC, Norican people crossed into the Po valley, entering into Roman territory, wandering and peacefully founding a settlement (later called Aquileia). It seems that these Gauls may have believed that the Romans actually did not intend to occupy this region.

Alarmed that an unknown group could just wander in and form a village, the Romans sent delegates to the Norican leadership, sending a praetor (senior Roman official) across the Alps to negotiate. The Norici responded that they had no idea why the group left and that they had done so without permission. It seems that this incident was resolved without bloodshed.

This episode is illustrative of the relationship that would be established between the Norici, later the Kingdom of Noricum (after 183)[7] and the Romans. The Romans believed all Gauls to be barbarians, and the sack of their city in 387 left the Roman psyche permanently fixed on violently removing any perceived threats from their Gallic neighbors. The fact that this incident was resolved peaceably shows a level of cooperation and trust built between the Romans and the Norici that was exceptional.

In contrast to their Celtic neighbors, most of whom would be violently conquered, the Norici built strong ties of friendship with their Roman neighbors In 178, Noric soldiers led by a certain Catmelus assisted the Romans in subjugating the tribes of Istria. Livy refers to the king of Noricum, Cincibilis (regulus trans Alpes, the king beyond the Alps). Catmelus (possibly the king’s brother), evidently had a working relationship with Roman senators, a powerful leg-up in negotiations. The king even offered help to the Romans in their war with Macedonia (169 BC).

In assisting her powerful southern neighbor, the kings of Noricum received means to consolidate their own power at home and build strength in the region. The Norici also benefited from Roman trade, with close mercantile relations beginning during mid second-century BC, evidenced by an influx of Roman currency at the time. A gold mine established in this period bolstered the success of the kingdom. Roman traders and merchants set up shop in Noricum in order to conduct business, and Latin permeated the region. One merchant family in particular, the Barbii of Aquileia, were the foremost traders. Inscriptions testify to their presence and a bronze statue has been discovered dedicated by the family.

It can only be wondered what the Norici thought to themselves as Rome conquered all of Macedonia, Greece, then Syria, much of Spain, the Levant and the African coast. Maybe they were amazed to be allied to such ferocious people, and doubtless that amazement was coupled with fear. After the middle of the 2nd century BC, the internal dynamics of the Roman Republic became increasingly chaotic, with political disputes turning into bloodshed. As the ambitions of Roman politicians turned outwards against barbarians, the Norici must have been highly attentive in maintaining good relations. 

V-2. The Cimbrian War

Around 120 BC, flooding in the Jutland peninsula (modern Denmark) forced three Germanic tribes south- the Cimbri, Teutones, and Ambrones. Migrating into central Europe, they allied with the Celtic Tigurini, forming an enormous new tribal coalition. With many tens of thousands of warriors (possibly as high as 200,000), they moved southward to settle in new lands. This was the beginning of a long period of Germanic migrations, and over the next 500 years Germanic peoples would absorb, displace, or destroy much of Celtic central Europe.

According to Livy, the invading tribes crossed the Danube in 113 and entered the territory of the Kingdom of Noricum (specifically, the lands of the Taurisci, who still were still a separate but related group). The Norici/Taurisci called on their Roman allies, who sent an army of 30,000 led by the consul Papirius Carbo. The Romans, their Celtic allies and the Germanic coalition met just outside the capital city of Noreia. A ferocious battle ensued that ended in decisive defeat for the Romans and the Celts. The Romans lost 20,000 men, with an unknown number of Celtic dead. The fate of Noreia (possibly modern Magdalensberg, Austria) remains unknown, though the city may have been sacked by the victors.

In the long conflict (113-101 BC), the Romans suffered a number of terrible defeats at the hands of the Cimbri, Teutones and their allies. This war (the Cimbrian War) provided the greatest threat to Roman power since the war with Carthage, and would see the annihilation of multiple legions.

Much of this conflict took place north of the Alps. Terrible destruction must have been wrought on the farms, villages, and oppida of the Norici and Taurisci, but no literary evidence attests to their suffering. After prolonged crisis, newly re-elected consul Gaius Marius destroyed the Cimbri and Teutones in two decisive battles, only after the defeat of four other Roman armies. Through it all, it seems that the king of Noricum remained firm allies of Rome.

V-3. Noricum and the last years of the Roman Republic

In 60 BC, an army of the tribe of Boii (Celts from modern-day Slovakia) besieged Noreia. Failing to capture the city, they were driven off by the Noricii and moved westward. The Boii had been in conflict with the Dacians (people from modern Romania), and it is likely they were forced from their homeland and sought to settle across the Danube. Archaeological evidence shows evidence of a first-century BC siege near Magdalensberg.

References to the Norican conflict with the Boii come from Julius Caesar’s writings on the Gallic Wars (Commentarii de Bello Gallico), a description of his campaigns in Gaul from 58-50 BC.

Caesar, at the time simply a prominent Roman politician, was given control of three Roman provinces, including a strip of Gaul north of the Alps. Over the course of eight years, he would completely bring the whole of Gaul (modern-day France) under Roman rule, conquering millions of Celts in a series of military victories and treaties with tribes.

In 58 BC, none of this was certain, and Caesar appeared to be another official in a long line of governors (proconsuls) seeking to extend Roman influence in the region. After their defeat, the Boii moved to modern-day Switzerland and allied with the Helvetii, another Celtic tribe. In order to counter this alliance, the Norican king Voccio sent his sister to marry the leader of the Suebi, Ariovistus. The Suebi were a powerful Germanic tribe seeking to extend their influence in Gaul, and Ariovistus led numerous incursions across the Rhine. Raids against a different Roman-allied tribe brought Caesar north, and the Germans were defeated.

Although Voccio had backed the wrong horse, he remained in Rome’s good graces. Caesar even sent Roman engineers to repair Noreia, which was still recovering from the siege.

Within eight years Gaul was conquered by the Romans, largely ending independent Celtic Europe[8]. Elements of Celtic/Gallic culture still thrived under Roman rule, over the centuries developing into a new Gallo-Roman hybrid. However, the Druids, priests of the old Celtic religion, were wiped out as a class after preaching resistance. In Roman Gaul, as well as Noricum, elites increasingly adopted Latin and manners of Roman culture in order to successfully engage in trade and compete for political resources.

Only by allying Rome had the Kingdom of Noricum preserved its independence. Keeping his constancy with Caesar, king Voccio provided him with 300 cavalry during the next Roman civil war, in which Caesar defeated his rival Pompey (49-45 BC). Shortly thereafter, Caesar was assassinated, and Rome quickly descended back into bloodshed.

In these last decades of the Roman Republic (44-27 BC), Noricum took the opportunity to expand. With the collapse of the Boii, who had been decisively defeated by Caesar, the Noricii were able to expand far east as Lake Balaton (modern Hungary). To the north, the kingdom controlled all territory until reaching the Danube, and was bounded in the west by the Inn River. This was the last period of Norican expansion, and the kingdom was at the height of its power.

V-4. Salzburg, the Ambisontes and Noricum

The Kingdom of Noricum was not a centralized state, in fact the king ruled over multiple smaller tribes who pledged to him their loyalty. Among these was the Ambisontes, who lived in the Salzach valley and likely controlled the Rainberg Hill oppidum within modern Salzburg. They were said to have migrated to the valley in the 4th century BC under a leader named Segovesus, coming from an older tribe in Gaul (the Bituriges). Settling on either side of the Salzach River, the Ambisontes were likely the first La Tène Celts in the valley, and may have controlled all of the oppida sites identified earlier (Saalfeldern-Biberg, Karlstein and Durrnberg). They were certainly involved in operating the (already) ancient salt mines. By the late first century, the Ambisontes were understood by the Romans to be a tribe controlled by the Noricum.

V-5. Annexation by Rome

Although the Kingdom of Noricum controlled the eastern Alps, that control was not total, and the Alps in general were notoriously lawless, making travel difficult between Italy and the trans-Alpine provinces. Many of the Celtic tribes operating in the Alps were outside the control of either Rome or Noricum. Additionally, Dalmatia, Pannonia, and the northern Balkans contained wild territory.

In 31 BC, the final civil war of the Roman Republic ended and Rome became a dictatorship. In 17 BC the first emperor, Augustus, began a great northern offensive that sought to finally bring the Alps, Pannonia, and the northern Balkans under Roman domination. This giant campaign finally ended the autonomy of the Kingdom of Noricum, which (largely) peacefully submitted into becoming a Roman province. The Eastern Alps were portioned into three provinces- Raetia, Noricum (which contained most of the former kingdom), and Pannonia Superior.

The Noricii had set themselves up for trouble while plans for a Roman campaign were still being drawn. Despite centuries of loyalty to Rome, in 16 BC the Noricii attacked the Istrians in battle, who were at that time Roman provincials. Although this was a small affair, probably conducted by a subordinate tribe acting outside of the king’s wishes, it provided enough of a pretext for Rome to take complete control of Noricum as part of the northern offensive.

Although a great blow to the Norican royal family[9], most of the Noricii found direct rule tolerable. For generations the elite of Noricum had adopted aspects of Roman culture and were likely to continue to prosper under Roman occupation. Rome could no longer tolerate the loosely-organized kingdom on her border, but people continued living there much as they had for centuries.

Not all of the kingdom’s tribes submitted peacefully however. The Ambisontes, the tribe of the Salzach valley, attacked the Roman invaders, revolting alongside two other non-Norican tribes (the Raeti and Vindelici). A victory monument discovered near Monaco attests to their defeat and subjugation. What did this mean for the Salzach valley, and the oppidum at Rainberg Hill?

At the Taxenbach Strait, a section of the Salzach river, a fortified hill has been discovered that shows signs of warfare. La Tene artifacts were discovered mixed with sword blades, scabbards, and shield bosses. This could be evidence of the Roman conquest. [10]

Almost nothing is written about the battles that happened there, except a few lines written by two later authors. Strabo records “Tiberius and his brother Drusus stopped all of them…by means of a single summer-campaign.” Tiberius would later become Rome’s second emperor. Appian, more than a century later, indicates that he was unable to find any information pertaining to the Alpine campaign. It is likely that the overall tranquility of the Norican conquest made for very little contemporary writing on the subject.

In 10 BC, a monument in Magdalensberg was set up by leading Norican tribes. The monument was dedicated to the women of the imperial family, and included praise of the emperor’s wife Livia. The Celtic tribes of Noricum had definitely become loyal subjects of the Roman Empire.

Shortly after the Roman takeover, settlements around Rainberg hill coalesced into a single settlement, called Juvavum. After centuries had passed, this city would come to be known as Salzburg. For an unimaginably vast period of time, humans had hunted, fished and farmed along the Salzach River. Since the advent of farming, people lived on Rainberg hill, later the Hallstatt people resided there, then the Celts. Having considered the earliest people who resided in the region, next we will look at Juvavum under the Romans, who lived in the city for some 500 years.

This 1720 map shows the extent of the Roman province, bounded by the Danube River to the North and the Inn River to the West. The southern boundaries seem to changed several times throughout the history of the Province. The original Kingdom of Noricum would have extended much farther.

SOURCES

  • Almost all information on stone-age and Bronze Age Salzburg came from the Keltenmuseum in Hallein, Austria. This museum has incredible artifacts from both the Celts and their precursors, as well as exhibits on salt-mining and later eras in Austrian history. I am very fortunate to have visited this museum in 2018 and have used photographs from exhibits throughout the article. It is a necessary stop for anyone visiting Salzburg who is interested in the history of the region. I would like to emphasize that I have no affiliation with the museum, and any research claims I have made in error are entirely my own.
  • For the Hallstatt, La Tene cultures as well as overall continental Celtic history:
    • The Ancient Celts by Barry Cunliffe (1997)
    • The Celts: A Chronological History by Daithi O Hogain (2002)
    • Celts and the Classical Word by David Rankin (1987, 2003 ed.)
  • The Celtic Encyclopedia by Harry Mountain (1997) for information on the Ambisontes
  • The foundational source for anything regarding the Kingdom of Noricum comes from Géza Alföldy’s Noricum (1974, 2014 ed.) This monumental work covers the entire ancient history of the region from 400 BC to the end of Roman rule in 600 AD, drawing on both archaeology and literary resources.
    • Also very helpful was by Alois Streicher & Phillip Kriechammer’s Die Geschichte Noricums(the History of Noricum) (2012), a summary document of Alföldy’s Noricum that considers other recent resources and provides primary source texts from Livy and inscriptions.

NOTES

[1] European early modern humans (EEMH) were the first anatomically modern humans in Europe, appearing as early as 48,000 years ago. Previously called Cro-Magnons, the Aurignacian (43,000-28,000 years ago) was only one material culture associated with their unimaginably long history. A period of de-glaciation (15-13,000 BP), and then the final end of the last ice age (12,000 BP) led to an influx of new peoples into Europe, merging with the EEMH and forming the basis of pre-Indo-European (Neolithic) Europe.

[2] The relationship between the Hallstatt people and the Celts is a complicated one, though the La Tène material culture is usually seen as the material culture of the Celts of classical antiquity. It is important to remember that material cultures are defined by archaeologists and do not always meet up neatly with tribes, cultures, or societies described by ancient authors. Additionally, many archaeologists (and anthropologists) are hesitant to link material cultures with historical groups, seeing such associations as counter to the science of archaeology.

[3] The term ”oppida” seems reserved for La Tène Celts

[4] “Celt” comes from the word Keltoi, likely a word developed by the Greeks of Massilia in the modern south of France. It apparently described a specific tribe, but came to be applied broadly. The Romans preferred the name of “Gauls” (possibly from a tribe, the Galii) but sometimes used the term Celtae. It is notable that neither of these terms were applied to the ancient Britons. In his writings, Caesar noted that the Gauls themselves used the term “Celt.”

[5] Illyrians are an ancient people who lived principally in the Balkans. In archaeology, there has been a great deal of debate about who-or-what defines an Illyrian (see p.15 in Alfody’s Noricum). Alfody, writing in 1974, noted that there is scarce attestation of Illyrian presence in the Eastern Alps. I was unable to determine today’s academic consensus on the extent of Illyrian culture or society in or north of the Alps.

[6] These two confederations were identified by the ancient geographer Strabo (63 BC-24 AD) and Pliny the Elder (23-29 AD), suggesting the persistence of these tribes into the first century AD

[7] Livy does not refer to any king when discussing the earliest contact between the Norici and Rome in the 186 BC incident, but does when writing about the 178 BC Noric troop contingent led under Catmelus.

[8] With the exception of the Britons, though they would eventually be conquered during the reign of Claudius (beginning in 43 AD).

[9] I was unable to find any information pertaining to the fate of the King or his descendants.

[10] This was information provided in a plaque in the Keltenmuseum.

Legitimization of Conquest

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Ceremonies of Possession in Europe’s Conquest of the New World, 1492-1640 by Patricia Seed

By Steven Knorr

As European powers expanded into the Americas, they used ceremony and ritual to cement their control over newly conquered lands. Perception of colonial ownership differed between the Portuguese, English, French and Spanish.

Ceremonies of Possession by Patricia Seed is a book that explains the rituals and ceremonies European colonizers performed when laying foundation for political authority over the New World between 1492 and 1640. Seed demonstrates that the Europeans did not behave as a monolith, but that each had their own customs and practices when establishing their overseas empires. According to Seed, the symbolic acts taken by the Europeans were based upon familiar gestures, actions, movements or speeches that they already understood[1]. Throughout the book she demonstrates how European legal codes can differentiate how legal possession can be interpreted differently.

Seed begins this discussion with the Portuguese claiming dominion over places they discovered.[2] To the Portuguese, simply discovering land meant they held dominion over it[3]. To the English however, to hold dominion over a territory meant there had to be an intent to stay by establishing houses and boundaries. Queen Elizabeth of England believed that the Portuguese had no dominion over places they simply had found[4]. The English established boundaries by putting up fences and hedges and building gardens. Full-time use of land was an important indicator of property to the English. For this reason, they were able to more easily disregard land usage by the Native Americans, as Native Americans only used theirs on a semi-permanent basis, according to the English laws.

Continue reading “Legitimization of Conquest” →

The Rise of the Asante Empire (1680-1750)

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The Asante Kingdom was the most powerful state in West Africa for over 200 years. With a tradition of monarchy centered around the Golden Stool, the Asante came to prominence during the reign of Osei Tutu (r. 1680-1717) and his immediate successors. 

By Nick Richwagen

Today the Ashanti (Asante) people number about 7 million, and inhabit central Ghana centered around the city of Kumasi. Their king, the Asantehene, continues to exert powerful social and cultural influence within Ghana, and his position is protected within the Ghanaian constitution. Ashanti kingship is similar in many respects to the chieftaincy system practiced by other Akan peoples, however the Ashanti distinguish themselves in their historical importance in the region. From the 17th to 19th centuries the Ashanti Kingdom was one of the most prominent states in the African continent, controlling territory outside the sphere of modern Ghana; at its peak the Asantehene ruled around 3 million people. Understanding the history of Ashanti is necessary for understanding the Gold Coast region and the broader history of Africa.

In the 19th century, the Asante came into conflict with the British, and after a series of brutal wars the Asante Empire was annexed by the British Empire in 1902 as a protectorate. Like the Zulu, the Asante were one of the few African kingdoms able to exert effective resistance against colonial European powers. This article discusses the origins of the Asante and their rise to dominance among the Akan peoples of West Africa.

Asante Kingdom 1800
The Asante Kingdom in the year 1600, featuring a modern distribution of Akan peoples and the borders of modern Ghana

The Akan Peoples of the Gold Coast and Their Origins

Roughly 20 million people speak Akan languages and reside in the Gold Coast region, today split between Ghana and the Ivory Coast. Though subdivided into multiple peoples, the Akan share matrilineal descent, a system of powerful chiefs (the chieftaincy), and related folklore.

The earliest Akan migrated from the Sahel region to the forests of the Gold Coast during the 11th century. Akan folklore suggests that their ancestors came from East Africa, even Abyssinia/Ethiopia. It is likely that the ancestors of the Akan played a role in the society of the Ghana Empire (c. 300 – 1200 AD), though much about ethnicity in that state remains uncertain. Much Akan migration southward only occurred after the collapse of the Ghana, and may have been in response to Islamic incursions in the region. The traditional Akan practice of ancestor-veneration would not have meshed well with Islamic monotheism.

Early Tropical West Africa

At the time of Akan migration, and after, tropical West Africa south of the Sahel was very sparsely populated. The tropical rainforests that dominated the coastal regions had poor soil unsuited for grain agriculture, and were unable to sustain large numbers of people. However, the crops that were grown (yams, tree crops, and palm oil) were eventually able to sustain state-level societies after the introduction of iron technology in the 1st millennium AD.  The first states to survive in the forests of West Africa were likely Igbo-Ukwu (fl. 9th century) in modern Nigeria, and remarkable Benin, which was founded c. 900 and lasted until the end of the 19th century. These were exceptions to the rule, however, and for the most part states did not begin to emerge until the 17th century, largely due to the sociopolitical changes that accompanied the Transatlantic Slave Trade.

This situation was in contrast to the Sahel region to the north, which sustained several large empires after the fall of Ghana. The great Sahel gold mines of the Mali Empire (1235-1670) started to decline in the 13th century, which allowed the forest dwelling Akan people to rise to prominence.

First Akan States

The first significant Akan country was Bonoman, founded in the 12th century. Bonoman became a regional trading power after Mali’s decline, making use of its own rich gold deposits. Other Akan peoples spread out from Bonoman and centralized political structures formed around other gold mines in the region. In the 17th century, a number of small Akan kingdoms emerged, including Denkyira, Akyme, Akwamu.

The Transatlantic Slave Trade and the Denkyira Kingdom

In the mid 1400’s, the Portuguese came into direct contact with West Africans. In 1434, the first Portuguese ships rounded Cape Bojador in Morocco, and in 1441 the caravel ship led by Antão Gonçalves returned to Lisbon with slaves and gold. It was the first time Europeans had directly taken slaves from sub-Saharan Africa. The Portuguese started trading in a small scale which grew over time, with slaves being secondary to other goods. However, by the end of the 15th century, the Portuguese were directly taking captured slaves to their colonies on Atlantic Islands, particularly São Tomé, to grow sugar.

The Portuguese, and other Europeans as they arrived, could not penetrate far into the African interior, and so formed coastal forts with which to trade with the locals. An early Portuguese explorer described the African jungle as being protected by “an angel with of a flaming sword” of tropical fevers that hindered Europeans (until the 19th century, 25-75% of Europeans in West Africa would fall and sick and die from diseases like dengue fever). In 1482, the Portuguese established Castelo Sao Jorge da Mina, or Mina Castle (Elmina), to trade with the Akan peoples in what is now Ghana (it would be seized by the Dutch in 1637). European forts, which came to be known as factories, would become the processing and loading points for millions of slaves as human cargo.

It was the discovery of the New World and the establishment of colonies in North and South America that would see the real birth of the Transatlantic Slave Trade. After 1500, Spanish, French, Dutch, and English traders arrived and began taking slaves in huge numbers. Portugal tried resisting the expansion of other European powers into their West African trading sphere, but had little success. In 1518, the first slaves were taken and shipped directly to Spanish colonies in the Caribbean. This was the birth of the Triangular Slave Trade, a new global market that integrated West Africa into the global sphere.

Because Europeans did not have resistance to deadly tropical diseases, they rarely were able to directly capture slaves from the West African coast. Instead, they formed trading relationships with native African tribes, cities, and kingdoms who would capture and sell slaves to the Europeans in exchange for manufactured goods. The influx of European muskets dramatically changed the balance of power in West Africa, as those African states which incorporated muskets into their armies became powerful and ascendant over their neighbors.

A series of devastating conflicts soon shook West Africa as new leaders emerged and many peoples were conquered. As the 16th century lead into the 17th, millions of slaves would be taken from their homes as a violent new order characterized West African life. Traditional social hierarchies often collapsed. By the mid-17th century, new states had emerged which were able to grow rich and powerful off of the new system and through trade with Europe. The nation of Dahomey (founded c. 1600) was a slave-trading state that made best use of new weapons technology, having a standing army with cannon artillery by the end of the 17th century.

Denkyira established the first great Akan Empire, seizing and controlling all of the Gold Coast Region by 1660. However, other Akan peoples were able to establish direct trade with the Europeans and form powerful states of their own. Akwamu formed north of modern Accra, which they conquered in 1681, and shortly after 1700 they controlled much the eastern seaboard of the Gold Coast.

War broke out between Denkyira and Akwamu, resulting in the fracturing of Akan peoples in the region. Denkyira continued to fight other Akan tribal states, such as Asen and Twifo-Heman. Denkyira’s empire was very decentralized, with subordinate chiefs being allowed to continue their rule as long as they payed tribute to the Denkyira king as vassals. As Denkyira continued in its many conflicts, subordinate vassal-chiefs were able to exert their independence and shrug off the authority of their nominal overlords.

The Early Asante

Fleeing Denkyira’s hegemony, many smaller Akan tribes moved eastward and settled around the city of Kumase (Kumasi). By the late 17th century, these Akan peoples were drawn together and were ruled by a single leader, called the Kumasehene. Eventually, the Kumasehene became the Asantehene, and the Asante saw themselves as a single, united people.

Obiri Yeboa was the first prominent Kumasehene, and he enlarged the power of his Oyoko clan (yeboa) by incorporating other local Akan nobility into his family, through a combination of force and diplomacy.

The Reign of Osei Tutu and the Golden Stool

Osei Tutu (r. 1680-1717) was the first king of Kumasi to claim the title Asantehene; he would lead the people of Asante and Kumase to become the dominant power of the Gold Coast. Osei Tutu had the vision and statesmanship to transform the Asante from a subordinate vassal of Denkirya to the paramount Akan kingdom.

Osei Tutu had spent some time as a resident prince of the Akwamu court, learned of their military tactics, and was able to forge an alliance with that tribe. With support of the Akwamu king, Osei Tutu revolted against Denkyira. In battle, the Asante developed pincher formation that aimed to flank the enemy force from the sides and rear. The revolt met with success.

In 1698, the favorite wife of Osei was sent to negotiate at the Denkyira court as a sign of goodwill; instead of receiving her honorably the enemy king raped her. After that, the war between the two kingdoms became much more savage.

At the Battle of Feyiase (1701), the Asante triumphed decisively over Denkyira, bringing total victory. The Denkyirahene was killed, and that nation would persist only as a shadow of its former self. The Asante Empire was now the dominant Akan kingdom, and soon monopolized trade in the Gold Coast region.

Osei used a consultative body- the Kotoko Council– to integrate the leadership of new peoples into the Asante State. As the empire expanded, incorporated peoples were allowed to join the Asante union directly or exist as semi-autonomous client states.

With Osei Tutu began the tradition of the Golden Stool, a gold-glad ceremonial chair which was the physical embodiment of the entire Asante nation. It was an ancient Akan custom for each family to have a stool signifying the authority of elders, as well as stools indicating a chief’s authority in each tribe. The Golden Stool developed a spiritual and political significance beyond all proportion of this earlier tradition, and was said to have miraculous origin. It was so sacred that even the Asantehene could not sit on it.

The chief priest and spiritual leader of the Asante, Okomfo Anokye, was believed to have called the golden stool down from heaven. The stool houses the soul of the Asante nation and is believed to connect all Asante individuals- those dead, those living, and those yet to be born. As a political symbol, the Golden Stool was seen to transcend the power of all other stools in the Akan tradition. As Akan tribes were absorbed into the Asante union, they were made to bury their stools in a sign of deference.

Osei Tutu led a new campaign against the Akyem kingdom, hoping to bring them into his empire. In 1717, while crossing the river Pra in a canoe, Osei was struck by a bullet from an enemy sharpshooter and died. He left behind an effective military machine that would create the most powerful kingdom in West Africa.

Opoku Ware succeeded Osei Tutu, and turned his eye northwards. By 1730, the realms of Bonoman and the non-Akan peoples of Gonja and Dagomba were brought into the empire. By invading Bonoman, the Asante gained access to the Lobi gold fields, which remain today one of the world’s richest gold deposits. Combined with the gold mines of Kumasi, the Asante became enormously rich. Dagomba retained its independence as a client state, and supplied the Asante with over 1,000 slaves annually.

Asante Society

By the 18th century, the Asante had evolved into a highly stratified society. The nobility and courtiers of the king were the sikapo, meaning “people of wealth” in the Twi language. The king and the aristocracy often wore so much gold that they needed special servants to support their limbs. The Asante upper class owned vast estates and hundreds of slaves. Lower-class free people were known as ahiato, who were noticeably shorter than the aristocracy. For the most part, they lived single-story huts and engaged in agriculture.

Slavery was a fact of life in Asante society, and trading slaves with the Europeans was important to the Asante economy. Slaves could lead brutal lives, particularly those who worked in the gold mines or in agriculture. Slaves were rarely offered the dignity of a burial, but simply disposed of after passing.

However, not all slaves were of the same status, as there were many levels of servitude. Some individuals served as indentured laborers for specified periods of time. Liberated slaves could be perfectly integrated into Asante society, where it was often considered taboo to ask about one’s family origins. There was a proverb “Obi nkyere obi ase,” meaning that no one should disclose the origins of another person. Freemen could become influential persons in their community — this was the biggest distinction between European chattel slavery and the slavery practiced by Akan societies.

The majority of the gold in the kingdom was the personal property of the Asantehene, and when wealthy sikapo died only a small portion of their gold went to their heirs— the rest went to the king.

Asante law was enforced by a police force who monitored those who entered and left the kingdom. Punishment could be severe, and could involve mutilation or executions. Although the Ashante practiced traditional Akan religion, Muslim advisors from Sahel kingdoms and Arabs were common in court.

The Asante Empire in 1750

Asantehene Opoku Ware died in 1750, the same year of Bach’s passing in Leipzig. In this year the Asante Empire stretched far northwards into the Sahel region, encompassing 100,000 square miles and three million subjects (greater than the contemporary population of the 13 American colonies). No other state in West Africa possessed such wealth and power. However, trouble was brewing on the horizon. The Fante Federation of States had emerged on the immediate coastal region outside Elmina, and was moving to control coastal trade with the Europe. The Fante were allied to the British, who resented Asante’s move to interfere with Fante trade.

The millions of Asante subjects had varying degrees of loyalty to the Asantehene. Outside of the power base in Kumasi, various Akan peoples still held deep local loyalties, and client chiefs had much autonomy. In the north, the non-Akan peoples of Gonja and Dagomba deeply resented Asante rule. As European rulers became increasingly invested in local politics, there were many potential sources of trouble for the Asante King. At the same time, no other kingdom in Africa held so much power. When Osei Kwadro took the throne in 1764, the future of the Asante people looked bright.

→ Next: The Asante-Fante War of 1806-1807 and the Battle of Cape Coast Castle

Sources

Those interested in further research can purchase resources below: 

The Second Punic War According to Livy

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AA

Titus Livius (Livy) wrote an 142-volume history of Rome between 27 and 9 BC. Only a quarter of his writing survives. Book 21-30 deal with the Roman Republic in her struggle against Hannibal. 

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By Steven Knorr and Nick Richwagen

Livy is known as a moralizing historian, and in his War with Hannibal (History of Rome: Books XXI-XXX) his belief in Roman values shows in his narration. Livy believed that human character and the moral character of history outweighed historical accuracy. Livy was interested in stories of right and wrong and the triumph of virtue. He highlighted heroic Roman leaders and singled out their virtues, such as with Quintus Fabius, who nobly delayed the Carthaginian advance through Italy to buy the Romans time.  Livy valued Roman virtues such as piety, bravery, and honor, and condemned weaknesses of character as leading to ruin. Like any pious Roman, he placed great stock in omens. Numerous omens exist in Livy’s history, both good and bad, that foreshadow events to come. Livy’s writing is best understood through a deeply moralistic, pious lens.

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Project Summaries and Update for January 2017

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This is the second calendar year since our website started back in August 2015. I thought it might be helpful to do an overview of the different subjects we have so far covered. In descending order from the most recent:

 10/2016 A Concise Summary of World War One: The First Two Years (1914-1916)  This project chronicles the first two years of the Great War.
 9/2016 Classical Inspiration for American Government A discussion of the ancient philosophy and traditions which inspired the creation of the US government.
 9/2016 Emperor Tiberius According to Tacitus A look at the second Roman emperor through the lens of the author Tacitus (AD 56-120), who had more than his fair share of biases.
 1/2016 The Radicalization of the French Revolution Why did the French Revolution become so extreme? Also, inexplicably our most popular essay.
 10/2015 The Saxons – Early History and Geography Concerning the ancient Saxon tribe, their traditions and customs, and their homeland in northern Germany. Also a look into some modern German geography.
 8/2015 Athens and the Greek World, 404 – 200 BC An examination of the political life of Athens, and its position in the larger Greek world, from the end of the Peloponnesian War through the Hellenistic Period.

In all so far, our two contributing authors have written five posts with more planned projects in the near future.

Although readership is still small, we are averaging one view every other day and have seen growth in views every month since last September. We are currently looking for more contributors, if anyone might enjoy writing about a history related topic for zero compensation. In interested, please comment or email one of the authors.